Donkeys have a limited repertoire of non-specific signs displayed when in pain or sick. This study looked closely at donkey behaviour during the progression of different diseases with the aim of improving pain and sickness recognition.
Video footage of a group of 79 donkeys at The Donkey Sanctuary was obtained for 6 months; where 45 diseased cases observed. Due data completes, four cases were selected [Cases A) with respiratory disease due to herpes virus (n=2) and Cases B) end-stage cases (hyperlipaemia, n=1; chronic laminitis, n=1)] plus four healthy controls (n=4). Cases A were observed for 8hrs on day -10 and -1 prior to disease onset (day 0 = first veterinary visit) and during treatment (day 1, 5 and 10). Cases B were observed for 8hrs on day -7, -3 and on the day of euthanasia (day 0). Total time (minutes) performing 47 different behaviours were compared between (painful/sick vs. healthy) and within donkeys using chi-square or fisher’s exacts tests.
Diseased donkeys in cases A and B spent on average 10% more time (range, 3 - 17%, p<0.01) with a lowered head carriage compared to controls. Conversely, they spent 15% less time (range 6 - 34%, P<0.04) with their ears in combinations (i.e. each ear in opposite direction), thus meaning ears were more static and unresponsive. Ear changes were subtle but were the earliest indicators of pain/sickness in the observed donkeys. Cases B compared to the controls spent 31% more time in recumbency (range 7 - 60%, p<0.01), and 40% less time eating (range 1 - 64%, p<0.01). The reduction in total eating time was not substituted by any other oral behaviour (e.g. drinking, grooming, licking, and investigative behaviours), where drinking and grooming were greatly affected in the donkey with hyperlipaemia. Finally, abdominal effort was only observed in cases A and tended to reduce with time on treatment (p=0.06).
Donkeys are working animals of great importance worldwide, and these results highlight useful behavioural changes that can be used as monitoring signs of pain/sickness in these animals. The potential use of these signs warrants further studies in greater and more diverse donkey populations.
The donkey is a unique species of equine, with certain specific variations and adaptations that differ from its cousin the horse. The donkey is used by humans as a pack and draft animal in areas of the world where its ability to cope with low‐quality fiber and harsh conditions have excluded the horse. This chapter highlights the differences in anatomy and particularly physiology that have enabled the donkey to fulfill these roles. One of the consequences of being equipped to survive in areas of food scarcity is the tendency to deposit adipose if conditions are reversed. This fact, combined with insulin resistance, leads donkeys rapidly to become metabolically compromised and develop hyperlipemia as a response to stress and sudden reduction in appetite. The consequence is that many donkeys with colic must also be treated for hyperlipemia, which may have a higher mortality rate than the primary condition. Pain behaviors in the donkey may be more subtle than those in the horse and therapeutically there are differences in drug metabolism between donkeys and horses. This chapter summarizes the types of colic that occur in the donkey in relation to anatomic location and as a consequence of management and environmental factors.
In depth interviews, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) exercises, case sample evaluations
1) Areas of life affected by donkey ownership identified by use of in depth interviews:
2) A series of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercises or tools were developed to explore the socioeconomic impact of donkeys.
Nine different tools were developed (including:
Value Web
Dream and Discover
Gender Myths
Empowerment and Status
Matrix of Species
Donkey Expenditure
100 Seeds Seasonal Calendar
Livelihoods Pair-wise Matrix
Who is Your Donkey?
3) Twelve workshops were conducted (two per case study, divided into male and female workshops) in six different communities (three urban and three rural).
a) Donkeys are direct generators of income in the following ways:
b) Donkeys are also a source of indirect income generation in the following ways:
c) After meeting their basic needs, people who use donkeys could save money and contribute to community saving organisations (which act as informal banks and insurance programs).
d) Possible non-financial gains from donkey owning include increase in social status, empowerment and sense of pride, contributing to local society, involvement in decision making, and relief from carrying physical burdens and associated health implications.
4) Welfare assessment overview
The results from the study of the socio-economic impacts of working donkeys in Ethiopia reveal that donkeys are major contributors to people’s lives no matter what context they are living and working in; for their owners, donkeys are the difference between destitution and modest survival. Sadly, the drudgery performed by donkeys is often a reflection of the lives of their owners; their hardships are shared. Donkeys become pathways out of poverty for the poor in rural and urban areas by providing access to opportunities through transportation for income generation, to attend schools, markets, and health clinics. The use of donkeys allows people to earn and save money and increase their ability to contribute to community savings and loans schemes.
Donkey owners expressed acute dependence on their donkeys and articulated feelings of love and friendship, even respect. Donkeys are understood to be animals that make people’s lives easier and act as mutual friends and life supports. Owners describe the importance and value that donkeys bring to their own lives and to their communities, however, although donkeys are undervalued and underappreciated by broader Ethiopian society. Donkeys are seen as ‘low-class’ animals of the working poor and the immense benefits they bring to those who own them remain largely invisible. Furthermore, donkeys’ social position within society is viewed as similar to that of women and, sadly, both are said to be treated equally—being beaten, carrying large loads on their backs and being submissive to men.
Where donkeys are in regular usage they are seen as important animals, friends or even part of the family, and people would find it difficult to make ends meet or provide for their families if they did not own a donkey. Humans rely on donkey transport to health services, to create their livelihoods, to relieve them of physical burdens and prevent them from slipping into extreme poverty. Donkeys rely on humans for feed, veterinary care, shelter, safety, and rest. Thus, donkey and human health are interconnected. However, donkey owners struggle to provide care to their families and livestock; provision of care to donkeys features low down on owners’ priority lists. As a result donkey welfare suffers. Donkey welfare assessment results show that the majority of donkeys surveyed suffered from gait abnormalities, abnormal hoof shapes, a high prevalence of body lesions, poor body condition scores, and displayed behaviours potentially indicative of negative emotional states.
Despite the donkeys important contributions to many of Ethiopia’s poor they remain absent from government animal health and welfare policies, they are overlooked by development goals and are marginalised by wider society. Thus, an exploration of the human dimensions of donkey wellbeing is crucial for understanding and properly valuing the donkeys’ impact in developing countries.
Introduction
Working donkeys and mules often require veterinary intervention for a variety of clinical problems. It is crucial that vets, animal health professionals and other equine professionals have a sound knowledge of donkey and mule behaviour to enable them to assess the animals and provide treatment in a species-accurate, humane and compassionate way.
Handling techniques affect equine welfare
The way in which donkeys and mules are handled can affect their welfare since quality of life is measured not only by physiological factors but also by emotional and affective states (1). Negative interactions can contribute to the development of fearful behavioural responses which can persist for a long time after the interaction takes place. Correct application of behaviour modification techniques can positively develop the human-animal bond and help the animal to remain calm during required veterinary procedures, often meaning that painful methods of restraint are not required. Simple techniques for approaching equines, taking rectal temperatures, using stethoscopes and appropriate restraint can, and should, be used to reduce stress for all aspects of a veterinary examination and treatment.
Human body language
Correct approach to an equine patient is vital to minimise stress and to prevent a flight response. Equines are sensitive animals who can detect very subtle body language signals. The body language and behaviour of the veterinary surgeon and animal handler can influence the animal’s behaviour; approach with calm, relaxed body language and allow the animal the opportunity to investigate you.
A relaxed, calm approach:
Practical application:
Less is more
When considering methods of restraint for veterinary examination consider that often ‘less is more’. Distressed and fearful animals are more likely to display erratic behaviours and become more likely to cause injury to themselves or their handlers (2). If calm, consistent handling is not sufficient to keep an equine calm during examination, and restraint is required, the least invasive and minimally aversive restraint options, such as a head hold or the raising of one leg, should be attempted first.
Ear twitches should not be used on equines; a recent study (3) found a significant increase in sympathetic tone and salivary cortisol levels when an ear twitch is applied and it also led to the development of avoidance behaviour indicating the aversive-ness of this procedure. Equines can become sensitised to aversive events or procedures after very few exposures (4) therefore aversive procedures should be avoided wherever possible and stress experienced during veterinary procedures must be kept to an absolute minimum.